Grammar: A Start.

Learning a Second Language especially in mastering the Parts of Speech is not as easy as it seem because it takes a lot of efforts especially in term of attention from the second language learners. First and foremost learners need to generate interest towards the target language as a good kick- start in the language learning process and only from that the on going learning process will determine the progress of the whole second language learning. Grasping basic English grammar is one thing that learners should deeply considered because grammar is the important gist of English second language learning. Students always stuck in the middle of grammar learning process because they found out that grammar learning hours are the most boring moment of their entire life. That is why in the second sentence of this article first paragraph I mentioned about deep interest because only interest towards the target language will definitely beat the time consuming hours of grammar lesson in order to succeed.

According to Nilon Nandy (2002) “Grammar is the study of how putting words together correctly to make sense. It is a study of a part that each word plays in a sentence so that we can understand it and use it correctly in communication.” Beside that, Nandy also mentioned that “a sound knowledge of grammar is important when learning a second or foreign language like English because it helps us to develop greater awareness of meaningful language and skill in using it completely.”

It is very clear that English grammar is totally different from our mother tongue grammar and it is very important for us to adapt to the correct usage of the languages when necessary. As learning is a long life process, learning second language for example the grammar shouldn’t be an exceptional.

My Engagement Moments on 25th Disember 2007.

Organizational Patterns of Paragraphs.

The Basic Unit Of Thought.

Perhaps one of the best ways to improve your reading ability is to learn to read paragraphs effectively. Many experts believe the paragraph, not the sentence, is the basic unit of thought of a selection. If one can quickly grasp the meaning of each of these though units while reading, then comprehension will be heightened.

It is important to identify with the author's perspective by discovering the way the message is being sent. Every writer has a purpose for writing and some plan of action for getting a message across. This plan of action is the order in which the material will be presented in the text. This order, often called a pattern of organization, should be present in acceptable writing from the smallest to the largest unit of writing: the paragraph, groups of paragraphs, sub-chapters, chapters, groups of chapters, whole books, and even series of books. Each of these, then, contains a certain pattern of organization.

Anticipating the order in which the material will be presented helps you put the facts into perspective and to see how the parts fit into the whole. For example, if the selection begins by indicating that there are four important components of management, you are alert to look for four key phrases to mark and remember. Likewise, if a comparison is suggested, you want to note the points that are similar in nature. For material that shows cause and effect, you need to anticipate the linkage and note the relationship.

The importance of these patterns is that they signal how the facts will be presented. They are blueprints for you to use.

In textbook reading the number of details can be overwhelming. The mind responds to logical patterns; relating the small parts to the whole simplifies complexities of the material and makes remembering easier.

Although key signal words help in identifying the particular type of pattern, a single paragraph can be a mixture of different patterns. Your aim is to anticipate the overall pattern and then place the facts into a broad perspective.

The following six examples are the patterns of organization that are most frequently found in textbooks.

Simple Listing

Items are randomly listed in a series of supporting facts or details. These supporting elements are of equal value, and the order in which they are presented is of no importance. Changing the order of the items does not change the meaning of the paragraph.

Signal words often used for simple listing are:
in addition another for example	also several a number of

Description

Description is like listing; the characters that make up a description are no more than a simple listing of details.

Definition

Frequently in textbook reading an entire paragraph is devoted to defining a complex term or idea. The concept is initially defined and then further expanded with examples and restatements.

Signal words often used for definition are:
is defined as means is described as	is called refers to term or concept

Chronological (Time) Order or Sequence

Items are listed in the order in which they occurred or in a specifically planned order in which they must develop. In this case, the order is important and changing it would change the meaning.

Signal words often used for chronological order or sequence are:
first, second, third before, after when later	until at last next

Comparison - Contrast

Items are related by the comparisons (similarities) that are made or by the contrasts (differences) that are presented. The author's purpose is to show similarities and differences.

Signal words often used for comparison-contrast are:
similar, different on the other hand but however	bigger than, smaller than in the same way parallels

Cause and Effect

In this pattern, one item is showed as having produced another element. An event (effect) is said to have happened because of some situation or circumstance (cause). The cause (the action) stimulates the event, or effect (the outcome).

Signal words often used for cause and effect are:
for this reason consequently on that acount	hence because made

Using a Dictionary.

One of the best ways to learn new words is to keep a good dictionary close to your elbow and use it. Sometimes, you can get some idea of the meaning of a new word from its context - how it is used in your reading material. Use context when you can, but be aware that it has its limitations. According to Lee Deighton of Columbia University, using context has the following three limitations:

• Context provides only the meaning that fits that particular situation.
• You often end up with a synonym, which is not quite the same as a definition.
• When you have to infer the meaning of a word, you can be slightly (or greatly) in error.

Your safest bet is to avoid all the guesswork and go straight to your dictionary. As you study, consult your dictionary whenever you come to a word that you don't know precisely. Find the exact meaning you need; then go back to your textbook and reread the paragraph, with the meaning substituted for the word. If you become interested in a particular word, write it on a 3 x 5 card. Later, go back to the dictionary and investigate it. Write its meanings on the card, and keep the card and other like cards to look through and study occasionally. But don't break into your studying for a long session with the dictionary; save that for later.

Follow the example of thousands of successful people. Get yourself a pocket dictionary, and always carry it with you. Its definitions will be terse, consisting mainly of synonyms, but its value lies in its ability to spark a lifelong interest in words as well as increase your vocabulary. Of course, a pocket dictionary is no substitute for a larger, desk-size dictionary; but as a portable learning tool, the pocket dictionary is worth at least its weight in gold.

For your study periods, buy and use the best abridged dictionary that you can afford, but be aware that no word is ever fully defined even by a good abridged dictionary. The dictionary meaning is only an operational meaning that will solve your immediate problem. Words have multiple shades of meaning that add richness to our language. The various shades will become apparent to you as you keep reading, listening, and trying to use words in a variety of contexts.

For intensive word study, however, there is no substitute for an unabridged dictionary. Locate the unabridged dictionaries in your library or resource center and use them to supplement your own abridged desk dictionary. An unabridged dictionary gives more definitions, more about the derivations of words, and more on usage. (Pauk, pp. 308 - 309)

Understanding the Reading Process.

Good readers understand the processes involved in reading and consciously control them. This awareness and control of the reading processes is called metacognition, which means "knowing about knowing." Some students don't know when they don't know. They continue to read even though they are not comprehending. Poor readers tolerate such confusion because they either don't realize that it exists or don't know what to do about it. Poor readers focus on facts, whereas good readers try to assimilate details into a larger cognitive pattern.

Five Thinking Strategies of Good Readers

1. Predict: Make educated guesses

Good readers make predictions about thoughts, events, outcomes, and conclusions. As you read, your predictions are confirmed or denied. If they prove invalid, you make new predictions. This constant process helps you become involved with the author's thinking and helps you learn.

2. Picture: Form images

For good readers, the words and the ideas on the page trigger mental images that relate directly or indirectly to the material. Images are like movies in your head, and they increase your understanding of what you read.

3. Relate: Draw comparisons

When you relate your existing knowledge to the new information in the text, you are embellishing the material and making it part of your framework of ideas. A phrase of a situation may remind you of a personal experience or something that you read or saw in a film. Such related experiences help you digest the new material.

4. Monitor: Check understanding

Monitor your ongoing comprehension to test your understanding of the material. Keep an internal summary or synthesis of the information as it is presented and how it relates to the overall message. Your summary will build with each new detail, and as long as the message is consistent, you will continue to form ideas. If, however, certain information seems confusing or erroneous, you should stop and seek a solution to the problem. You must monitor and supervise you own comprehension. Good readers seek to resolve difficulties when they occur; they do not keep reading when they are confused.

5. Correct gaps in understanding

Do not accept gaps in your reading comprehension. They may signal a failure to understand a word or a sentence. Stop and resolve the problem. Seek solutions, not confusion. This may mean rereading a sentence or looking back at a previous page for clarification. If an unknown word is causing confusion, the definition may emerge through further reading. When good readers experience gaps in comprehension, they do not perceive themselves as failures; instead, they reanalyze the task to achieve better understanding.

Adapted for Breaking Through to College Reading, Brenda Smith, 1999.

Techniques For Concentrating and Remembering.

Concentrating takes discipline! Remembering takes practice!

Better Concentration:

Any organized attempt on your part to remember more of what you read involves your ability to concentrate on the material you are reading. Intense concentration increases the time you spend attending to the task, an important element in reading. Students who are impulsive in their actions often find it difficult to concentrate for any length of time. Likewise, students who are passive in their approach to learning - those who are not actively engaged and thinking about what they are reading - often fail to get involved with the material enough to concentrate for long periods of time. Here are some ways to improve your concentration:

Improve your attitude

Some subjects you will encounter in college may not be of high interest to you. Not only that, some subjects may not seem relevant to your field of study. You must maintain a positive attitude however and realize there is a job to be done! To get your degree, you must pass all these courses, not just the ones you like.

Attend to the task

Concentration is a must for successful reading. Yet many distractions may be encountered which lessen your ability to stick to the task and concentrate for long periods of time. A good idea is to keep a "distraction list" of times you were interrupted from concentrating on your reading. The list may include items such as: a) type of book being read; b) number of minutes reading before distraction; c) type of distraction; d) amount of time taken by the distraction; and e) a goal to improve. Concentration is improved if you study when you are the most alert, least tired and in good physical condition. During your scheduled breaks, get up from your desk and walk around or do something physical for about 10 minutes.

Establish a purpose

If you first determine a purpose for reading, you then have a reason for thinking as well as for completing the reading assignment. Purpose helps focus your attention and improve your concentration. Write out some questions that pertain to the subject matter you are about to read. For instance, what specifically do you want to know or need to know about this subject? By pre-selecting questions to answer, you become an active participant in the learning/reading process.

Eliminate emotional stress

Rid yourself of impulsive and avoidance behavior due to overwhelming daily stress by keeping a "blame list." This is a list of all the people, situations, circumstances, etc., that you blame for your avoidance behavior. Your blame list can be a benefit in getting you to face your problems squarely. Today's world is highly complex, technocratic, and impersonal. It is no wonder you feel emotionally stressed and drained at times. If you find yourself in the middle of a brief depression or emotional upheaval, do something physical or any activity that is not mind taxing.

In summary, remember to maintain a positive attitude, avoid negative people and influences, stay active in the learning process without being hyperactive about it, keep a list of distractions to help eliminate some impulsive behavior, choose carefully your place and time to study, and try physical activity to burn off stress and to maintain an alert mind.

Techniques for Remembering:

A push from short-term to long-term memory.

To transfer information from short- term to long- term, permanent memory, the brain has to perform several functions. The brain by nature is a selective organ, committing to permanent memory only those items it deems are absolutely necessary to retain. You must determine what is important and what is just fluff. If the information is important and needs to be stored, you must perform an essential operation to insure transfer into permanent memory. This process is called recitation or verbalization. You help to transfer the information through the recitation process by repeating the information over and over again, or by summarizing the information in your own words. This process of reciting important information enables the brain to permanently store the information. Recitation is the best way to commit large amounts of information to long-term memory.

Sorting Information

Sorting large amounts of information into categories can help you remember information more accurately and retrieve information faster. For instance, suppose you had to learn the following concepts for a business class: tools, labor, trees, wildlife, human resources, minerals, machinery, capital resources, factories, tractors, water, power plants, manpower, natural resource, typewriters. These concepts would be difficult to learn and remember if you were merely trying to memorize the individual terms. If you sort these terms into major categories, you will place a value on the terms and give them meaning. These individual terms could be held in short-term memory long enough for you to push them into long-term memory by using the recitation process. For example:

Natural Resources	Capital Resources	Human Resources
minerals	tools	labor
water	machinery	manpower
trees	power plants
wildlife	factories
	tractors
	typewriters

If you stop your reading often to review and categorize, it will be easier to verbalize the information at the end of the reading, thereby, improving your long-term memory.

Mnemonic Devices

Mnemonic aids (from the Greek word meaning 'to bring to mind') are specific memory enhancing techniques which can be useful in learning enormous amounts of seemingly unrelated information. Mnemonic devices are best suited for remembering facts and least helpful in the interpretation of facts or in relating learned material to your life situations. Some mnemonic examples are:

rhymes;

Acronyms;

catch phrases;

association by image;

peg words

Strengthening Your Reading Comprehension.

HOW TO STRENGTHEN YOUR READING COMPREHENSION.

Analyze the time and place in which you are reading - If you've been reading or studying for several hours, mental fatigue may be the source of the problem. If you are reading in a place with distractions or interruptions, you may not be able to understand what you're reading.

Rephrase each paragraph in your own words - You might need to approach complicated material sentence by sentence, expressing each in your own words.

Read aloud sentences or sections that are particularly difficult - Reading out loud sometimes makes complicated material easier to understand.

Reread difficult or complicated sections - At times, in fact, several readings are appropriate and necessary.

Slow down your reading rate - On occasion, simply reading more slowly and carefully will provide you with the needed boost in comprehension.

Turn headings into questions - Refer to these questions frequently and jot down or underline answers.

Write a brief outline of major points - This will help you see the overall organization and progression of ideas.

Highlight key ideas - After you've read a section, go back and think about and highlight what is important. Highlighting forces you to sort out what is important, and this sorting process builds comprehension and recall.

Write notes in the margins - Explain or rephrase difficult or complicated ideas or sections.

Determine whether you lack background knowledge - Comprehension is difficult, at times, and it is impossible, if you lack essential information that the writer assumes you have.

Suppose you are reading a section of a political science text in which the author describes implications of the balance of power in the Third World. If you do not understand the concept of balance of power, your comprehension will break down. When you lack background information, take immediate steps to correct the problem:

• Consult other sections of your text, using the glossary and index.
• Obtain more basic text that reviews fundamental principles and concepts.
• Consult reference materials.
• Ask your instructor to recommend additional sources or review texts.